From the beginning of human history, there have been two groups of people that would follow two lines of religiosity. The first group, choosing disobedience to God—the Creator of the universe—consists of the sons of rebellion; they will always constitute the dominant majority of humanity. It is from this group of people that rulers of individual states and political powers, as well as builders of civilizations, will emerge. And like Cain, it is the sons of rebellion who founded the first cities (Genesis 4:17), and erected impressive temples that serve not only as an expression of their pride and self-deification but also as visible signs of their might and power. These grand, majestic, awe-inspiring temples testified that the sons of rebellion were profoundly religious individuals.
The second group of people consists of the sons of obedience, who have never been the dominant majority in history. Only occasionally will some of the kings of Israel be in accordance with God’s plans and will. In the era of the New Covenant, the church of Christians is Israel—the people of God. According to the words of the Apostle Peter: “… you are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, His own special people, that you may proclaim the praises of Him who called you out of darkness into His marvelous light.” 1 Peter 2:9
The church of God in the early centuries of the Christian era found itself in the “wilderness” due to apostate Christianity, which compromised with paganism and persecuted those who did not accept the authority of the pope. This church never captivated with its external splendor. It is a church that preserves what is internal. The sons of obedience never built powerful, impressive structures. It is worth taking a closer look at how the history of these two global churches has been inscribed in the language of architecture.
Materialized Language
Architecture is the art of designing, constructing, and creating spatial structures, organizing space for human use. However, for a complete understanding of a building with a specific architectural form, perceived through our senses, it is also necessary to acknowledge that, in addition to the technical dimension, there exists a language of architecture. Therefore, it is crucial to perceive architecture as a system of signs. Symbols and signs embedded in the language of architectural structures hold particular significance in understanding political, social, and religious realities. Architecture, in essence, is a materialized language. Religious architecture, therefore, can narrate the history of religious thought as much as written documents. So, what does the architecture of Christian churches tell us?
The Church in Its Beginnings was the Home Church
Today, we are accustomed to thinking of the church as that building on the corner; therefore, when reading about the New Testament church, we may overlook one obvious fact. In the beginning, the local church in a particular area held its gatherings in private homes rather than in spacious church buildings. The members of the church itself are described as a home: “As you come to Him, the living stone, rejected by men but chosen and precious in God’s sight, you also, like living stones, are being built into a spiritual house … .” 1 Peter 2:4, 5 BSB. The church is the house of God, just as the nation of Israel was before. We, who believe in Christ now, have become the house of God, united by His love into one family. It is worth asking ourselves at this point whether we should rediscover the importance of home churches. The church, as the assembly of believers in Jesus Christ, may find, in addition to meeting in formal church buildings, the need for gatherings in homes. This can lead to an extraordinary blessing. It not only deepens our mutual Christian friendships, but a home church can also contribute to the development of the kingdom of God in proclaiming the eternal gospel among people who might never enter a formal church building.
The Beginnings of Christian Architecture
In the year 313, after the issuance of the Edict of Milan, Christian architecture gained the opportunity for full development. Prior to the edict issued by Emperor Constantine and Emperor Licinius, Christianity was an illegal religion, and therefore, there was no legal possibility of publicly professing one’s faith or constructing church buildings. During the era of Constantine, Christianity emerged triumphant from the depths of conspiracy and underground cemeteries (catacombs), and the first church buildings were erected. The emperor himself constructed them in Rome, at the presumed tomb of the apostle Peter, and in many other locations.
The origins of Christian church architecture are the subject of disputes and discussions. However, it seems certain that the concept of the church as a building serving a religious function—as a temple—was developed by Christian builders drawing on the tradition of ancient Roman architecture. Preserved examples of these earliest churches come in two types: central (circular) and longitudinal (basilicas).1 What distinguished the concept of a church building as a temple from, for example, Greek temples, was that the church was an “internal temple” where the central place was the altar around which the clergy—priests together with the laity, or ordinary members of the Christian community—gathered. It is crucial to understand what transpired to lead the Christian community to divide into a separate caste of parishioners—that is, members of the Christian community—a term that also implied an unrefined, uneducated, backward individual—and priests.
Rotten Compromise
Constantine aspired to unite pagans and Christians in his empire instead of dividing them. Unity was to be the foundation of the new era and political order, even at the expense of the truth of the gospel. The previous persecutions of the church were directed against its efforts to maintain biblical separation from the pagan world. However, now that Christianity had been declared the state religion, “conversion” became easy, and the “former” pagans began to bring their pagan beliefs and practices into the church. With peace and prosperity during the time of Constantine, paganism, false teachings, and practices inconsistent with the Bible began to spread within the church. Giving glory to God started to take on an externally attractive and artistically beautiful form, but lost its character of personal communion with God. The beginning of the 4th century marked the beginning of the period of the union of church and state. Pagan, occult, and mysterious cults such as Mithra, Isis, Jupiter, and Bacchus merged with Christianity. “Instead of ‘reaching forth to what was before,’ the Christian Church permitted herself to be overtaken by the spirit of the ages that lay behind her. There came an after-growth of Jewish ritualism, of Greek philosophy, and of pagan ceremonialism and idolatry; and, as the consequence of this threefold action, the clergy began to be gradually changed, as already mentioned, from a ‘teaching ministry’ to a ‘sacrificing priesthood.’ This made them no longer ministers or servants of their fellow Christians; they took the position of a caste, claiming to be superior to the laity, invested with mysterious powers, the channels of grace, and the mediators with God. Thus there arose a hierarchy, assuming to mediate between God and men.”2
The Organization of the Church Building in Space
A building where Christians gathered for worship, whether it was a private home or a structure exclusively used for the purposes of religious gatherings of Christians, was not perceived as a temple. However, from the 4th century onwards, a deviation systematically began. Gradually, but decisively, the power and authority of the word of God were replaced by the fictitious power of religious ceremonies and alleged miracles. Simple believers no longer placed their trust in the one true Saviour, but followed the Roman Church, trusting the teachings of popes and priests. It was widely believed that during the Mass, in the Eucharist, the bread and wine were transformed into the literal body and blood of Christ. By the 11th century, the doctrine had solidified that each Mass is a reiteration of Christ’s sacrifice for the sins of the living and the dead. Therefore, the church building is constructed as a temple with the altar as the central point.
In the initial period, the church building consisted of three naves intersected by the so-called transept, which is a transverse nave, and was concluded with an apse (see diagram). The transept along with the apse forms the presbytery, the priestly space, distinct from the longitudinal naves constituting the so-called nave, designated for the laity—ordinary believers.3 This arrangement of a church is known and used not only in Catholic churches, but only Catholic churches function as temples, having an altar on which sacrifices are made by a Catholic priest.
The Foundations of the Church
With the influx of pagans into the Christian church, the cult of the dead penetrated Christianity. This led to an interest in the tombs of martyrs recognized as saints, with people praying at their graves. Sometimes, alleged miracles occurred at the tombs of martyrs, which resulted in an increasing reverence for them. Magnificent basilicas, temples dedicated to these saints, began to be built over their tombs. However, this was not a time when the remains of the deceased could be moved or touched. It was only in the 4th century, during the reign of Emperor Constantine, that an exception was made to allow the transfer of the remains of the deceased recognized as saints. At the end of antiquity, the cult of relics was inseparably linked to the church building. This means that the church—the temple—was a place where fragments of deceased individuals were preserved. Every Catholic church must have an altar on which there must necessarily be a piece of a corpse—a relic; without it, the celebration of the papal Mass is impossible.4 Interestingly, it was precisely to those churches where relics were housed that the most pilgrimages took place, as there was a belief in their power to perform miracles.5 The foundation of every Catholic church is the world of the dead, full of skeletal remains.
The Temple—Gothic Cathedral
In the history of church architecture, a special place is occupied by the Gothic cathedral, which represents the most perfect expression of the human spirit’s quest to dominate the entire space inhabited by medieval humanity. One could even argue that the construction of Gothic cathedrals was the greatest revolution in the history of architecture, enabling a technological and civilizational leap comparable to the industrial revolution. The Gothic cathedrals that emerged in medieval Europe are characterized by incredible magnificence, artistic beauty, breathtaking dimensions, and harmony of proportions. These medieval cathedrals, visible from afar, dominated the cityscape and influenced the public space with their enormity. The monumental structures were sometimes built over hundreds of years, completed when none of the original builders remained among the living. These medieval cathedrals, with their beauty and grandeur, overwhelmed humanity, reminding them of their own insignificance. The sublimity and magnificence of cathedrals are challenging to compare to anything else. Anyone who entered the interior of these monstrous sacred buildings was overwhelmed by the vastness of the space and the height of the vaults, experiencing awe, admiration, as well as a sense of unease and awe. The entire religious and political power of the Roman Catholic Church was manifested in the Gothic cathedral.
Power is everything
Thanks to the reforms of Pope Gregory VII, the Roman Catholic Church reached the peak of its power. The papacy liberated itself from secular authority, breaking free from dependence on feudal lords and rulers, while simultaneously declaring itself the head of the secular hierarchy. Thus, the popes began to subordinate emperors, kings, and princes to themselves.6 Now bishops have even more power and money to realize even the boldest architectural visions. In the face of rulers impoverished by the Crusades and the stripped wealth of the nobility, the church presented itself as a true force, gaining and strengthening power by promoting itself as the only path to salvation. The world outside the church appeared as miserable, dark, and foolish. The only light seeped through the stained glass of the Gothic cathedral, promising salvation. It was easier to raise a cathedral around a tangible and defined holy relic. For example, the Cathedral of Chalons (France) received the alleged foreskin of Jesus from the circumcision, and one of at least twenty skulls of John the Baptist is in Amiens (also in France). Relics earned cathedrals money, but later cathedrals earned money from relics.7 Cathedrals were built for even greater power and wealth. Of course, all of this was done for the greater glory of God, as their founders used to say. During the Counter-Reformation, Catholic churches under the guidance of the Jesuits were even more lavishly adorned with gold, precious stones, and works of art, creating even greater splendor, while at the same time quietly emphasizing their spiritual emptiness and ostentatious rebellion against the God revealed in the Old and New Testament.
Protestant Church Architecture
With the Reformation, the architecture and art of Protestant churches underwent a change. Historic Protestant churches are primarily characterized by simple and modest interiors. They do not feature statues, religious decorations, depictions of saints, or relics. At the center of the church is the pulpit—the lectern from which the word of God is preached—around which the faithful gather. Usually, next to or in front of the pulpit, there is a wooden table for the observance of the Lord’s Supper, rather than an altar for making offerings. This unequivocally tells us that being in a Protestant church, we are not in a temple but in a house of prayer. It is important to note that among supporters of the Reformation, there were diverse views on buildings for worship. At the beginning of his reformative journey, Martin Luther believed that churches should only be houses of prayer with a purely utilitarian character. According to the ideas preached by Ulrich Zwingli, a special building dedicated to prayer was not necessary. On the other hand, John Calvin saw the need for such a building, provided that its interior was devoid of any adornments.8 However, before Protestants could start building their churches freely, without persecution from Catholics, many years would pass. In some European countries, this would only happen in the second half of the 17th century. In others, it did not occur until the early 18th century.
Forest churches
The period between the onset of the Reformation and the Catholic states granting permission for the organization of public gatherings and the public practice of their faith was a time of persecution of Protestants by Catholics. I was born and raised in Cieszyn Silesia, which in the mid-16th century was a region where the majority of the population were Evangelicals. The call to return to the roots of Christianity was embraced by all layers of society at that time. Religious freedom came to an end when the staunchly Catholic Habsburgs took control of the region, and Roman Catholicism became the sole prevailing faith. In 1654, most Protestant churches were taken away. Until 1709, and in some areas until 1781, they could only meet in secrecy. This was the time of the church “in the wilderness.” To preserve their faith, Protestants in Cieszyn Silesia gathered in secret worship, high in the forests on the slopes of the Beskid Mountains, in places hidden from the eyes of persecutors. This is how forest churches were created. To this day, the memory of nine locations has survived, six in Poland and three in the Czech Republic.9
Church of God
The church of Christ consists of people filled with the Holy Spirit who keep God’s commandments and bear witness to Jesus Christ, as well as having faith in Jesus. If so, what are the buildings where worship services are held? After all “… the Most High does not dwell in houses made by human hands. As the prophet says: ‘Heaven is My throne and the earth is My footstool. What kind of house will you build for Me, says the Lord, or where will My place of repose be? Has not My hand made all these things?’ ” Acts 7:48, 49 BSB
All church buildings serve a supportive role for the church as places of assembly, also known as houses of prayer. In these places, the church gathers, and brothers and sisters filled with the Holy Spirit come together to engage in an atmosphere of prayer, hymns, and psalms, dedicating themselves to the teaching of the word of God. This is how the apostles and the early Christians understood it and practiced it. Moreover, we have the promise of our Lord Jesus that “where two or three gather together in My name, there am I with them.” Matthew 18:20 BSB. Does this mean that if we gather in a church building, its architecture should be uninspiring, and its interior formal and characterless like a conference hall? God has given man a natural need for beauty, aesthetic sensitivity, and creativity. Therefore, let our houses of prayer express—in the architecture and the interior—our principles of faith, simplicity, and elegance, as well as sensitivity to beauty.
1 J. Białostocki, Sztuka cenniejsza niż złoto, publishing house PWN, pp. 42, 43
2 J.A. Wylie, History of Protestantism, Cassel & Co., Vol. 1, p. 10
3 T. Broniewski, Historia architektury dla wszystkich, Ossolineum, p. 103
4 www.ordo.pallotyni.pl/index.php/dokumenty-o-liturgii/wprowadzenia-do-ksiag-liturgicznych/318-obrzedy-poswiecenia-kosciola-i-oltarza, accessibility: 01.14.2024
5 https://dorzeczy.pl/religia/380383/czym-sa-relikwie-na-czym-polega-kult-relikwii.html, accessibility: 01.14.2024
6 P. Rugała, Państwo i Kościół w walce o dominację nad średniowiecznym światem w badaniach Jaquesa LeGoffa, MHP, p. 107
7 www.national-geographic.pl/artykul/sredniowieczne-katedry-swiatlo-z-kamienia, accessibility: 01.15.2024
8 P. Czernek, Protestancka architektura sakralna na Śląsku Cieszyńskim w XX i XXI wieku, PAN, p. 193
9 https://lutherantheology.wordpress.com/tag/cieszyn/, accessibility: 01.17.2024
Note: BSB (Berean Standard Bible)
Marcin Watras lives in Katowice, Poland. He is interested in the philosophy of religion and trends in society. He works for the European Union.